Do cell phones cause cancer Review the science about the potential Essay

Do cell phones cause cancer Review the science about the potential hazard to human health - Essay Example hildren and adults, and the actuality that these phones emit radio- frequency waves, researchers and health specialists have raised concern about the safety of cellular phone utilization. With regard to cancer, the focus is on whether the users of cell phones are more prone to the risk of brain tumors and other tumors in the neck and head area. The radio frequency waves from cell phone are given off through the antenna. The nearer the cell phone is held to the head, the closer the antenna and a greater exposure to radio frequency energy of the person using the cell phone. A number of factors affect the quantity of radio frequency waves absorbed by the brain, including: total time the person spends on phone, as different phones emit different amount of waves therefore the model of phone being used, how close the phone is held to the head, and the amount of cell phones a specific area at the time. Public health specialists and researchers throughout the world are busy in vigorous discussions concerning whether radiation from the cell phones lead to brain cancer or not. The early studies of short term cell phone use did not find any evidence for augmented risk of brain cancer, but the studies conducted for long-term cell phone utilization, have instituted a greater risk of developing two types of brain cancers on the ipsilateral side, that is, the side of brain on which the mobile phone is mostly held. The two types of cancers are: A multinational case-control study was developed by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), in the late 1990s. It was named â€Å"INTERPHONE† and its purpose was to attend to rising public concerns about the safety of cell phones which were becoming very strong. The objective of the INTERPHONE case study was to look into and determine whether the radio frequency radiations which are emitted by the cell phones are carcinogenic. Thirteen countries were participants of this project and the study took place from year 2000 to

Concussions in football Essay Example for Free

Concussions in football Essay Injuries in professional sports are always occurring, but in football the risk of injury is much higher considering it is a contact sport. Although One of Americas most precious pastimes; American Football is the most dangerous sport because of the risk of concussions. Concussions in football have been a major concern though the years especially in recent years and the seriousness of this particular injury must be bought to the attention of not only the players, but to the media and professional leagues . Advancements in technology and health protocols have brought attention to the actual severity of concussions in football. Many NFL players that have had a concussion, or multiple concussions, not only struggle when they return to the field, but also struggle with normal aspects of their lives. The relevance of concussions has risen so far as of late, that former NFL players who previously suffered from concussions have gotten together to sue the NFL for improper information and protocol when they suffered their concussions. The concern of concussions has risen to a point where people have debated whether football should be banned altogether. The risk of concussions in football is very high compared to other sports. The constant contact and trauma that the head takes from being hit can sometimes lead to a concussion, but they are usually sustained through one powerful hit to the head. â€Å"The impact of one player running into another has almost twice the strength then one person running into a standing, or placed individual† (Onion). This would prove noteworthy for the kickoff or punt return aspect of football. During these situations the opposing teams are running full speed toward each other, and the ball carrier is usually the one who is at the most risk for concussion. The discussion of removing kickoffs and punts has been a major topic of discussion because of these facts. There are also different levels of concussions. â€Å"A minor concussion or grade one concussion may involve being dazed, head ringing, a minor headache, and a very brief loss of consciousness. A more severe concussion such as a grade 2 concussion may cause being blacked out, confusion, a pounding headache, and blurred vision. The most server concussion or grade 3 concussion may cause being blacked out, nausea or vomiting, loss of short term memory, and saying the same thing over and over†(Swierzewski). The most dangerous symptoms occur when a player is cleared to play before he has fully recovered from their concussion. When an athlete is cleared to play before he has fully recovered that is when death can occur. Retired players that have played professional football at some time in their life who sustained concussions have also had many problems in their retirement. One of these many retired players include former defensive lineman George Visger who frequently has memory loss or severe headaches. Visger said that he believes that he â€Å"accumulated close to hundreds if not thousands of concussions throughout his football playing career, some documented, some not† (Smith). Some problems that occur from concussions could end up being more life threatening then Visgers symptoms. â€Å"The suicides of former Chicago Bears Defensive end Dave Duerson and Owen Thomas, a University of Pennsylvania defensive end, have shown that the severity of concussions can psychologically destroy a person† (Compton). These symptoms that Visger, Duerson, and Thomas have or had experienced have happened to many other retired football players as well, which shows that this is very common among concussion recipients. Visger was also one of more than four thousand former NFL players who filed a seven hundred and seventy five million dollar lawsuit against the NFL for lack of information of concussions, and neglecting of the severity of concussions (Farrar). This settlement was reached and the money was granted to the players, but the fact is that these men must live with consequences that they received when they played the game of football. Not only is everyday life a struggle for these gentlemen, but the risks that they took can sometimes lead to their untimely death. Although most athletes are aware of concussions, not everyone is aware of the long lasting effects of them which are up to coaches and staff to explain. â€Å"The obligation of an employer to provide its employees with a safe workplace free from recognized hazards is well established. In the absence of specific standards for an industry, an employer is required under OSHAs general duty clause to provide its employees with a workplace free from recognized hazards which cause or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm†(Holmquist). In this case the employee is the athlete and the employers would be the football team’s staff and coaches. It is up to them to explain the long term consequences to these players, and enforce the safety protocol that must happen if they ever obtain a concussion. By doing this, the player is more informed of the risks of injury and the steps they have to take to either change the way they play, or simply don’t play the game at all. Equipment is also a major factor in dealing with concussions. The regulation helmet used in the NFL has gone through rigorous changes to keep concussions to a limit, but there is only so much you can do to prevent a concussion. â€Å"What helmets do not do well is significantly slow down the contents of the skull when the head is struck and moved suddenly† (Compton). The design of a helmet is made to prevent skull fractures not to prevent the fast impact of a hit to the head. Although technology will probably continue to improve the quality of helmets in football, the brute force of a hit to the head can probably never be covered up by any sort of helmet. The discussion of banning football due to the high risk of concussions has been a topic of debate also. Although it is ultimately the decision of someone to do what they want, they might not know the full consequences of what they’re getting into. It is important to educate athletes on the full on risks of concussions and how serious they really. If the overall topic of concussions can be explained to athletes, then football can be that much safer.

Geophysical Methods Used In Groundwater Exploration

Geophysical Methods Used In Groundwater Exploration The role of geophysical methods in Groundwater Exploration is imperative. Its chief aim is to understand the hidden subsurface hydrogeological setting correctly and effectively. As the base of any geophysical methods is the contrast between the physical properties such as the features, objects, and layers and the surroundings. Parker et al, (2009) indicated that object are only confirmed when the contrast is sufficiently large enough to change the geophysical signal depicting the anomaly as an alien feature of the subsurface i.e., different physical and/or chemical properties than the surroundings in which it is located. They also indicated that geophysical method does not only characterise the subsurface but also spot inhomogeneous features or target that are not characteristics of the surrounding host material in water, water-covered, soil or sediments. Thus the better the contrast or anomaly, the better would be geophysical response and hence the identification. So, the efficiency of any geophysical techniques lies in its ability to sense and resolve the hidden subsurface hydrogeological heterogeneities or disparity. For groundwater exploration a cautious appliance or combination of techniques is most vital to become successful in exploration, technologically as well as cost-effectively. It is undeniably conceptualized that groundwater cannot be detected directly by any one of the geophysical methods and therefore the interpretation is appropriate and a broad understanding of the subsurface hydrogeological condition or setting is a must. Hubbard S.S et al., (2000), Ugur Yaramanci et al., (2002) and Ramke L. Van Dam (2010) emphasizes the use of two or more complementary geophysical methods to enhance data interpretation. With multiple collocations of geophysical data available, excellent results will be produced with significantly better interpretations than when with a single method. Conventional geophysical methods have often been used to map the geometry of aquifers such as seismic, electrical and electromagnetic methods (Wattanasen et al (2008)). These methods have been used to determined and estimate locations, transmission properties, storage and the aquifer materials despite the ambiguity of the interpreted results due to limitation in each method and the site dependence. But with the improvements in instruments, the development of better methods as resulted in a widening of its applications. Surface Electrical Resistivity The primary purpose of resistivity method is to determine the subsurface resistivity distributions by making measurements on the ground surface. There by measuring the potential difference on the surface due to the current flow within the ground. From this measurement the true resistivity of the subsurface can be estimated. The mechanism responsible for the fluid flow and electric current and conduction in porous media according to P.M Soupious et al., 2007, are generally governed by the same physical parameters and lithological attributes, thus the hydraulic and electric conductivities are dependents on each other, while H.S. Salem et al., 1999, indicated that electric-current conduction is affected by various mechanisms in a saturated systems and can be represented by a two-phase model (grain-matrix conductance) known as dispersed phase, and pore-fluid conductance also known as continuous phase. The two-phase model can further be developed into a five-phase model, consisting of sur face conductance occurring at the charged fluid-solid interface, ion-exchange conductance, Maxwellian-effects conductance of both solids in the matrix and those suspended in the pore fluid, grain-matrix conductance and pore fluid conductance. The electrical conduction in the subsurface is mainly electrolytic because most minerals grains are insulators, therefore, the conduction of electricity is through the interstitial water/ or fluids in the pores and fissures. These pore space and fissure of rocks are filled by groundwater which is a natural electrolyte. The factors responsible for the flow and conduction of electrical resistivity in soil and rocks are extremely variable and can vary by several orders of magnitude. These factors according to Loke, 1999 are porosity, degree of water saturation and concentration of dissolved solids, O.A.L. de Lima et al., 2000; tortuosity and porosity, P.M Soupious et al., 2007; lithology, mineralogy, size, shape, packing and orientation of mineral grains, shape and geometry of pores and pore channels, permeability, compaction, magnitude of porosity, consolidation and cementation and depth and water distribution. The resistivity of sedimentary rocks, which are usually more porous, with high water content is highly variable with low resistivity and depends on its formation factor. Formation factor is a very powerful tool in resistivity surveys as it allows pore fluid resistivity to be calculated directly from bulk earth resistivity measurements. This relationship can also be used to convert earth resistivity contours in to fluid conductivity or TDS contours. Bulk resistivity of the ground is measured from direct current resistivity and it obeys an empirical law within an aquifer. This was first proposed by Archie (1942) and the relationship may be expressed as: à Ã‚  = a à Ã¢â‚¬ ¢- m S- n à Ã‚ f Where à Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ is the porosity of the rock formation, S is the degree of saturation, a, m, and n are constants that depend upon the formation, à Ã‚ f is the resistivity of pore fluid. Archies Law shows that bulk resistivity à Ã‚  of fully saturated formation of a granular medium containing no clay depends significantly on the resistivity of the pore fluid à Ã‚ f. This is mainly as a result of the resistivity of the fluid much lower than that of the solid grains in the matrix. Given that, matrix conduction is negligible and the electric current passes almost entirely through the fluid phase, thus making resistivity methods much more important for hydrological studies. (S.R Wilson et al., 2006). Archies law can thus be expressed as: à Ã‚  = a à Ã¢â‚¬ ¢- m à Ã‚ f, assuming that at saturation, S is1. where à Ã‚  is the bulk resistivity, à Ã‚ f is the fluid resistivity, à Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ is the porosity of the medium, m is known as the cementation factor and a, the tortuosity factor, cementation intercept, lithology factor or lithology coefficients is associated with the medium and its value in many cases departs from the commonly assumed value of one. It is meant to correct for variation in compaction, pore structure and grain size. According to H.S. Salem 1999, the cementation factor of Archie;s equation has specific effects on electric conduction processes in porous media and exhibits extensive disparities from sample to sample, formation to formation, interval to interval in the same medium and from medium to medium. Because of its dependence on various properties, m has been referred to as cementation factor, shape factor, conductivity factor, porosity exponent, resistivity factor, and cementation exponent. The dependence of m on the degree of cementation is not as strong as its dependence on the grain and pore properties (shape and type of grains, and shape and size of pores and pore throats). Therefore it is more appropriate to describe m as shape factor instead of cementation factor. Resstivity survey has been used for a number of geological purposes. S. Srinivas Gowd, 2004, J.O. Oseji, 2006, A.G. Batte et al., 2010, used surface electrical resistivity surveys to delineate groundwater potentials, A. Samouelian et al.,2005, used electrical resistivity survey in soil, S.R. Wilson et al., for saline interface definition, M. Arshad et al., 2006, for lithology and groundwater quality determination, A. Turesson, 2006, for water content and porosity estimations. S.R Wilson, et al, (2006) applied earth resistivity methods in defining saline interface in Te Horo on the Kapiti Coast in New Zealand. They used vertical electric sounding (VES) and direct current resistivity traversing which has been mostly successful in defining subsurface areas of higher salinity by providing a two-dimensional image of the bulk resistivity structure. A VES technique has been used most frequently to locate the extent of saline interface using the Schlumberger array geometry. It shows variation in bulk resistivity with distance from the coast and this could be related to the degree of saline mixing but fails to give in depth picture of both the location or structure of the saline interface. However, with the location of the estimated saline interface known, resistivity traversing can be used to improve its location and shape. They result clearly show the potential of resistivity traversing in mapping and in understanding the structure and progression of saline interface in coastal aquifers. Even though VES data may resolve one-dimensional resistivity structure beneath a sounding location, any two- dimensional interpretation of the data requires interpolation between discrete measurements. In contrast, resistivity traversing data provide continuous two-dimensional image of both lateral and vertical variations in resistivity. The important contrast in the electrical resistivity of saline and fresh water allows direct imaging of a sharp saline interface. However, they used formation factor to interpret resistivity data from a much wider area. The formation factor for an aquifer is defined from Archies Law with an assumption that at saturation S is 1, as F =p/pf=aà Ã¢â‚¬ ¢-m Sharma et al (2005), carried out an integrated electrical and very low frequency (VLF) electromagnetic surveys to delineate groundwater- bearing zones in hard rock areas of Purulia districts, west Bangal, in India for the construction of deep tube-wells for large amounts of water. The location of potential fractures zones in hard rock areas to yield large amounts of groundwater is very difficult and therefore cannot be easily done using one approach. Hence groundwater potential of any location in hard rock areas requires several approaches, geophysical as well as hydrogeological techniques to increase groundwater yield. Electrical and electromagnetic geophysical methods have been extensively used in the search for groundwater as a result of good correlation between electrical properties, fluid content and geology. Groundwater in hard rock areas is normally found in cracks and fractures and therefore the yield depends on the interconnectivity and size of the fractures. The combined use of DC resistivity soundings, SP measurement, Wenner profiling and VLF electromagnetic were used to map the fractures in hard rock areas. VES method was used to determined resistivity variations with depth but cannot be performed everywhere without the priori information. The VLF was successful in mapping resistivity contrast in boundaries of fractures with high degrees of connectivity and also as a result of their high resistivity they have been proved to yield a higher depth of penetration in hard rock areas. Additionally, VLF data is useful in determining suitable strike direction to perform resistivity sounding i.e. parallel to strike and thus improving the chances of success. Resistivity profiling and SP measurement also give important information about the presence of a conductivity fracture and groundwater movement. They concluded that VLF measurement only give indications of the presence of conductive zone but cannot differentiate between deep and shallow sources. Hence, it is essential to follow the location of these VLF anomalies with a technique that investigate the depth of these conductive sources. Consequently, the Schlumberger sounding technique was proved to be effective in determining resistivity variation with depth. A review on the use of electrical resistivity survey as applied to soil was carried out by Samoulian et al, (2005) to re-examine the basic concept of the method and the different types of arrays devices used (one-, two- and three-dimensional arrays), the sensitivity of electrical measurements to soil properties which includes the degree of water saturation i.e. water content, arrangement of voids such as porosity and pore size distribution connectivity and the nature of the solid constituents such as particle size distribution and mineralogy and the main advantages and limitations of the method. They review indicated that electrical resistivity is non-destructive and can make available continuous measurements over a large scope of areas as compared to the conventional soil science measurements and observation which disturb the soil by random and or regular drilling and sampling. As a result of these temporal variables such as water and plant nutriment, depending on the internal structure can be monitored and quantified without changing the soil structure. Thus the application is numerous which includes; determination of soil horizonation and specific heterogeneities, follow-up of the transport phenomena and the monitoring of solute plume contamination in a saline or waste context. However, they suggested that electrical measurements do not give straight access to soil characteristics that is of interest to the agronomist and therefore preliminary laboratory calibration and qualitative or quantitative data interpretations must be carried out in order to connect the electrical measurements with the soil characteristics and function. Direct and indirect method of groundwater investigation was carried out in southern Sweden using magnetic resonance sounding (MRS) and vertical electrical sounding (VES) by Wattanasen et al, (2008). The aim of the survey was to compare MRS with VES and other geophysical methods. The MRS results were consistent with VES. It is a successful tool in groundwater exploration particularly in an area of sedimentary rocks of high magnitude of earth magnetic field. A good quality data was obtained as a result of low ambience noise, low variation in the earth magnetic field and high level of MRS signal. The MRS was effective in determining the depth to water layers, water content and their thickness. It can also detect water in areas with high conductive clay layer that is close to the surface, a factor that limits the penetration depth of other geophysical methods like GPR. Hydraulic properties are essential parameters in hydrogeology for accurate modelling of groundwater flow and rate of movement of contaminant or pollution. These properties; hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity and storage coefficient are used to describe and quantify the capacity of the materials composing aquifers and confining units to transmit and store water. The hydraulic conductivity and storage coefficients (storativity) are aquifer properties that may vary spatially because of geologic heterogeneity. Traditionally, pumping test or laboratory techniques when core samples are available have been used to determine the aquifer hydraulic parameters. These methods have been proved to be invasive and expensive and provide information only in the vicinity of the boreholes and the sample locations. The application of geophysical techniques could be seen as a means of providing important complementary information that might help to reduce the costs of hydrogeological investigations. Aristodemou et al., (1999) and Soupious et al., (2007) also applied surface geophysical techniques to determine the hydraulic conductivity values using both Kozeny-Carman-Bear equation and the Worthington equation. According to Worthington equation: Fa=Fi .(1 + BQvà Ã‚ w)- 1 (1) where, Fa is the apparent formation factor, Fi is the intrinsic formation factor and the BQv term is related to the effects of surface conductance, mainly due to clay particles. In case surface conductance effects are non-existent, the apparent formation factor becomes equal to the intrinsic one. Thus, 1/Fa= 1/Fi +( BQv/Fi)à Ã‚ w (2) Where 1/Fa, is the intercept of the straight line and BQv/Fi represents gradient. Thus, by plotting 1/Fa versus fluid resistivity à Ã‚ w, we should in principle, obtain a value for the intrinsic formation factor, which will subsequently enable us to estimate porosity from the formula à Ã‚ o = a à Ã‚ w à Ã¢â‚¬ ¢- m where à Ã‚ o is the bulk resistivity, à Ã‚ w is the fluid resistivity, à Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ is the porosity of the medium and m is the cementation factor, although it is also interpreted as grain-shape or pore-shape factor; the coefficient of a is associated with the medium and its value in many cases departs from the commonly assumed value of one. The apparent formation factor Fa =à Ã‚ o/à Ã‚ w, where à Ã‚ o is the bulk resistivity obtained from the resistivity inversion and à Ã‚ w is the fluid electrical resistivity obtained from the borehole. These porosities were subsequently used to estimate the hydraulic conductivity through the Kozeny-Carman-Bear equation. K = ( ÃŽÂ ´wg / ÃŽÂ ¼) . (d2 /180) . [ (à Ã¢â‚¬ ¢3 / (1 à Ã¢â‚¬ ¢2 ) ] Where d is the grain size, ÃŽÂ ´w is the fluid density, and ÃŽÂ ¼ is the dynamic viscosity. Andreas Hordt et al., (2006) and Andrew Binley et al., (2005) used spectra induced polarization to determine the hydraulic conductivity. There work was focussed on laboratory experiments in order to establish a semi- empirical relationship between complex electrical resistivity and hydraulic parameters and then applied the field technique to evaluate the feasibility of the method. Thus the hydraulic conductivity, k was then calculated from the Kozeny- Carman equation based on formation factor and inner surface area. K = 1/ F(Spor)c, The exponent c is an adjustable parameter. Complex electrical conductivity was used as a convenient means of hydrogeological applications; à Ã†â€™ = à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ à Ã†â€™Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡eià Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ = à Ã†â€™ + ià Ã†â€™ Where à Ã†â€™ and à Ã†â€™ denote real and imaginary part, and à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã†â€™Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ and à Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ denote magnitude and phase, of the conductivity à Ã†â€™. Formation factor was calculated from the equation: F = à Ã†â€™ w/ Re(à Ã†â€™) Im (à Ã†â€™)/l where à Ã†â€™w is the pore fluid conductivity. The factor l is the ratio between imaginary and real part of the surface conductivity. The pore space- internal surface area, Spor is an empirically derived equation from laboratory. Anita Turesson (2006), applied ground- penetrating radar and resistivity independently to evaluate their capability to assess water content and porosity for saturated zone in a sandy section, since dielectric and the resistivity of rocks and sediments are very much dependent on moisture content. Archies empirical formula was used in the resistivity method to determine the relationship between resistivity and porosity (Andrew Binley et al., 2005) in the sedimentary clay free rocks based on the formation factor, which is the ratio of resistivity of the porous media to that of the pore fluid. The results obtained shows good agreement between the two methods in the saturated zone and they use of the independent methods greatly strengthen the results. Another subsurface geophysical techniques is the Induced Polarization (IP) technique which over the past years has been used successfully for mineral exploration by providing in situ information about rock mineralogy mainly disseminated ores and mineral discrimination. More recently the method has been applied in the field of environment and engineering studies to materials which do not contain conductive minerals but rather clay minerals for the mapping of polluted land areas, movement of contaminants and grain size distribution parameters in unconsolidated sediments (E. Aristodemou et al.,(2000); Andreas Hordt et al., 2006, 2007)). In theory, induced polarization is a dimensionless quantity whereas in practice it is  measured as a change in voltage with time or frequency. The time and frequency IP  methods are fundamentally similar, however, they differ in a way of considering and  measuring electrical waveforms. In the former, a direct current is applied into the  ground, and what is recorded is the decay of voltage between two potential electrodes  after the cut off of the current (time-domain method). In the latter, the variation  of apparent resistivity of the ground with the frequency of the applied current is  determined (frequency-domain method). In another type of frequency method, which is called Complex Resistivity (CR) method, a current at frequency range (0.001 Hz to 10 kHz) is injected in the ground and the amplitude of voltage as well as its phase with respect to the current is measured. That is a phase-angle IP measurement. Various studies have been carried out most recently to establish an empirical relationship between hydraulic properties and induced polarisation measurements, though only limited number of studies exists so far at a field scale. The reason for this is that hydraulic properties depend on both porosity and geometry of the pore space. Induced polarisation (IP), is the only geophysical methods that depends on surface characterisation and has been used in hydrology as the possible link to hydraulic properties. (Binley et al., (2005)). Semi-emperical relationships between IP and hydraulic properties have been extensively investigated. Andreas Hordt et al., (2007), estimated hydraulic conductivity from induced polarisation using multi-channel surface IP measurement over a sand/gravel aquifer at Krauthausen. Despite carrying out measurement over a broad frequency range called spectra IP, the hydraulic conductivity analysis was restricted to single frequency data based on the Borner model and Slater and Lesme model. They however, used two different approaches to determine the hydraulic conductivities from the IP results. The first approach is the Bà ¶rner method refered to as the constant-phase angle (CPA), where real and imaginary parts of complex electrical conductivity was sufficient to estimate the hydraulic conductivity from the Kozeny-Carman type equation; k=1/F(Spor)c, based on two parameters; the formation factor and the pore-space related internal surface area, Spor which was empirically derived from laborat ory measurements . The second approach suggested by Slater and Lesme was based on an empirical relationship between k and the imaginary part of conductivity at 1 Hz without using the real part and/or the formation factor: K=m/(b)n. This was based on the argument that hydraulic conductivity primarily depends on the specific inner surface. Andrew Binley et al. 2005, worked on the relationship between spectra induced polarisation and hydraulic properties of saturated and unsaturated sandstone. They tried to observe the spectra IP response of samples taken from the UK sandstone aquifer and compared the measured parameters with the physical and hydraulic properties. There result shows that the mean relaxation time, Æ ¬, is a more suitable measure of IP response for these sediments, with a significant inverse correlation existing between the surface area to pore volume ratio and the Æ ¬, suggesting that Æ ¬ is a measure of a characteristic hydraulic length scale. This was supported by a strong positive correlation between log K and log Æ ¬. There results revealed significant impact of saturation on the measured spectra, thus limiting the applicability of hydraulic-electric models in utilizing the SIP measurements. However, in contrast, they suggested new opportunities for development of physically b ased models linking unsaturated hydraulic characteristics with spectra IP data. The resistivity method was used to solve more problems of groundwater in the types alluvium, karstic and another hard formation aquifer as an inexpensive and useful method. Some uses of this method in groundwater are: determination of depth, thickness and boundary of an aquifer (Zohdy, 1969; and Young et al. 1998), determination of interface saline water and fresh water (El-Waheidi, 1992; Yechieli, 2000; and Choudhury et al., 2001), porosity of aquifer (Jackson et al., 1978), water content in aquifer (Kessels Induced Polarization Fundamentals The induced polarization (IP) method is an electrical geophysical technique, which measures the  slow decay of voltage in the subsurface following the cessation of an excitation current pulse. Basically, an electrical current is imparted into the subsurface, as in the electrical resistivity  method explained elsewhere in this chapter. Water in the subsurface geologic material (within  pores and fissures) allows for certain geologic material to show an effect called induced polarization  when an electrical current is applied. During the application of the electrical current, electrochemical  reactions within the subsurface material takes place and electrical energy is stored. After  the electrical current is turned off the stored electrical energy is discharged which results in a  current flow within the subsurface material. The IP instruments then measure the current flow.   Thus, in a sense, the subsurface material acts as a large electrical capacitor. The induced polarization method measures the bulk electrical characteristics of geologic units;  these characteristics are related to the mineralogy, geochemistry and grain size of the subsurface  materials through which electrical current passes. Induced polarization measurements are taken together with electrical resistivity measurements  using specialized IP instruments. Although the IP method historically has been used in mining  exploration to detect disseminated sulfide deposits, it has also been used successfully in ground  water studies to map clay and silt layers which serve as confining units separating unconsolidated  sediment aquifers. Advantages Induced polarization data can be collected during an electrical resistivity survey, providing the  proper equipment is used. The addition of IP data to a resistivity investigation improves the  resolution of the analysis of resistivity data in three ways: 1) some of the ambiguities encountered  in resolving thin stratigraphic layers while modeling electrical resistivity data can be reduced by  analysis of IP data; 2) IP data can be used to distinguish geologic layers which do not respond well  to an electrical resistivity survey; and 3) the measurement of another physical property (electrical  chargeability) can be used to enhance a hydrogeologic interpretation, such as discriminating  equally electrically conductive targets such as saline, electrolytic or metallic-ion contaminant plumes from clay layers. Limitations The induced polarization method is more susceptible to sources of cultural interference (metal  fences, pipelines, power lines, electrical machinery and so on) than the electrical resistivity method. Also, induced polarization equipment requires more power than resistivity-alone equipment   this translates into heavier and bulkier field instruments. The cost of an IP system can be  much greater than a resistivity-alone system. This, plus an added amount of complexity in the  interpretation of the IP data and the expertise needed to analyze and interpret this data may exceed  the resources of some contractors and consultants. Induced polarization fieldwork tends to be labor intensive and often requires two to three crew  members. Like electrical resistivity surveys, induced polarization surveys require a fairly large  area, far removed from power lines and grounded metallic structures such as metal fences, pipelines  and railroad tracks. Instrumentation Induced polarization instruments are similar to electrical resistivity instruments. There are two  different types of induced polarization systems. Probably the most common type of IP instrument  is the time-domain system. This instrument transmits a constant electrical current pulse during  which time the received voltage is sampled for an electrical resistivity measurement, acting like a  conventional electrical resistivity system. The electrical current is then shut off abruptly by the  system, and after a specified time delay (several milliseconds) the decaying voltage in the subsurface  is sampled at the IP receiver, averaging over one or more time windows or time gates. The  units of measurement are in millivolt-seconds per volt. The second type of IP instrument is the frequency-domain system. In this type of system,  transmitted current is sinusoidal at a specified frequency. Since the system is always on, only an  electrical resistivity measurement can be collected at a particular frequency. To collect induced  polarization data, two frequencies are used, and a percent change is apparent electrical resistivity  from measurements collected at the two frequencies is calculated. This number is called the  percent frequency effect or PFE, and the units are dimensionless in percent. Two frequencies  commonly used are 0.3 and 3.0 Hertz, representing low and high frequency responses, respectively. Other types of Induced polarization may be encountered, although not commonly in environmental  applications. These include spectral induced polarization, complex resistivity, and phase  systems. A detailed description of these systems is beyond the scope of this chapter and the reader  is advised to consult the literature for an extensive discussion of these systems. Electrical resistivity surveying is an active geophysical technique that involves applying an electrical current to the earth and measuring the subsequent electrical response at the ground surface in order to determine physical properties of subsurface materials. The general principle of resistivity testing is that dissimilar subsurface materials can be identified by the differences in their respective electrical potentials. Differences in electrical potentials of materials are determined by the application of a known amount of electric current to these materials and the measurement of the induced voltage potentials. Ohms law states that the voltage (V) of an electric circuit is equal to the electric current (I) times the resistivity (R) of the medium (V-IR). Resistivity surveys are conducted by: 1) applying a known amount of electric current (I) to the earth; 2) measuring the induced voltage (V) ; and, using these two measurements, 3) determining the resistivity (R) of the volume of earth being surveyed. Resistivity methods usually require that both current inducing and measurement electrodes to be pushed or driven into the ground. With connecting wires from the instruments to the electrodes, electrical current is introduced into the ground using the current electrodes and resistivity measurements are performed using different measurement electrode configurations and spacings. There are a number of standardized testing procedures, some of which are described in detail in this section. Resistivity surveys identify geoelectric layers rather than geologic ones. A geoelectric layer is a layer that exhibits a similar electric resistivity response. A geoelectric layer can, but does not always, correspond to a geologic one. For example, an isotropic homogeneous sand, which is saturated with a fluid exhibiting a single conductivity response, will appear to be a single geoelectric layer. The same sand, if filled with fluid layers containing different conductivities, (i.e., salinities) will appear to be more than one geoelectric layer. The interpretation of resistivity data is therefore best made in conjunction with other geophysical techniques (i.e., seismic refraction) or conventional subsurface investigations (i.e., soil borings Historically, it was the use of galvanic measurement systems that gave rise to the IP method which  demonstrated its high efficiency in resistivity surveys for mineral prospecting and structural applications. Induced polarization is a complex phenomenon controlled by many  physical and physicochemical reactions associated with passage  of current through rocks. The Induced Polarization method of geophysical exploration is something of a rarity. It is the only new geophysical method to come into use in over fift

The Idealism of Kurt Vonnegut :: Biography Biographies Essays

The Idealism of Kurt Vonnegut Kurt Vonnegut was greatly influenced by his involvement in World War II. His entanglement with the Dresden bombing had an unequivocal effect upon his mentality, and the horrid experience propelled the liberal anti-war assertions that dominate many of his novels. Throughout his life, his idealistic nature has perceptibly undulated, and five representative novels illustrate the forceful progression and gradual declivity of his liberal views. The first thirty years of his life outwardly coincided with the average American man. He was born in Indianapolis on November 11, 1922, and lived a happy childhood with a stable family. He then proceeded to pursue science in college, serve his country in World War II, study under the GI Bill after the war, and land a job in public relations before becoming a full-time writer. Even his large and growing family seemed to capture the true spirit of the American ideal. However, one element of his past would affect him in a way that would change his life forever. In December 1944, he was captured by the Germans at the Battle of the Bulge. He and his fellow POWs were taken to Dresden, an "open" city rich with architectural treasures and devoid of any military value. British and American planes needlessly firebombed the city on the night of February 13, 1945, hoping to inspire terror in the Germans and crush their fighting spirit. Over 135,000 civilians were killed-twice the amount of casualties at Hiroshima. The insane horror and absurdity of the Dresden attack remained deeply etched into Vonnegut's mind from that day forward. Nearly two decades later, Vonnegut published Mother Night, a novel that displays the profound influence that the massacre exerted upon him. It contains this stirring autobiographical account of his Dresden experience in its preface: We didn't get to see the fire storm. We were in a cool meat-locker under the slaughterhouse with our six guards

Healthcare Technology: A Summary Report Essay

In 1992, the American Nurses Association’s (ANA) Congress of Nursing Practice supported the recommendation of the Council on Computer Applications in Nursing to officially recognize nursing informatics (NI) as a nursing specialty. The ANA currently defines NI as a specialty that integrates nursing science, computer science, and information science to manage and communicate data, information, knowledge, and wisdom in nursing practice (American Nurses Association [ANA], 2008). The purpose of this paper is to discuss the current use of healthcare information technology (HIT) in the acute care setting by interviewing a nurse working in HIT and analyze its impact on the professional nursing practice. The Interview Jayne Thompson, RN, BC, MSN is employed at Memorial Medical Center in Springfield, Illinois as a Clinical Application Support Specialist. Memorial Medical Center, is a 504 bed, Magnet designated, level one trauma center located in Central Illinois and the flagship hospital of the Memorial Health System, which is comprised of four hospitals and affiliated with Southern Illinois University School of Medicine. A one-hour interview with Jayne was scheduled and held on March 13th 2013 at 7:00 AM in her office. Interviewee Jayne has worked at Memorial Medical Center for twenty-five years and began her career as a staff nurse on the cardiac surgery unit where she developed a passion for nursing research. This led to a position as a research nurse for the Prairie Education and Research Cooperative (PERC) in Springfield, IL where she coordinated clinical trials on cardiac stents. As a research nurse, Jayne’s need for gathering and sharing data spurred an interest in healthcare informatics and in 2008 she enrolled in Walden University’s Masters degree program in Healthcare Informatics. Upon graduation in 2010 Jayne moved into her current position as Clinical Application Support Specialist. In 2012 she completed her certification in Nursing Informatics. Jayne’s responsibilities include ensuring the effective performance of the computer information system, Cerner, which is used within the Memorial Health System. She sees her role as a liaison between nursing and information technology (IT) to guarantee that nursing is represented in decisions that impact clinical systems in the acute care setting. Jayne gathers end users’ (users for which the product is designed) concerns, suggestions and, criticisms regarding the workflow process and brings them to the attention of the IT department. Together they build, trial and implement computer system changes, which are then taken back to the end user. Education and Training The American Nurses Credentialing Center (ANCC) describes an informatics nurse specialist (INS) as a master’s prepared nurse. In order to qualify to take the ANCC exam, a nurse must be, at minimum, bachelor’s prepared (nursing or other related field of study), complete a minimum number of hours of work experience and graduate study. Currently two designations for certification in NI are available through the ANCC. Nurses certifying with a baccalaureate degree or higher degree in nursing use the designator RN, BC while nurses certifying with a degree in a related field, i. . computer sciences use the designator RN, C. (Hunt, Sproat, & Kitzmiller, 2004). The nurse, new to an informatics role needs to become familiar with current definitions, literature and know the scope and standards of the profession as established by the ANA (ANA, 2008). Following the completion of her MSN, Jayne needed her role as Clinical Application Support Specialist further defined based on the sc ope of responsibilities and relationships expected for the proposed implementations of the Cerner system. Challenges Jayne sees advancing evidence based nursing (EBN) as one of the biggest challenges facing nursing. The INS must focus on converting available data information into practical, accessible information that can enlighten practice. This is accomplished through alerts and computerized decision support (CDS), which make evidence-based guidelines available at the point of care (Simpson, 2007) Finding the best tools and methods for managing vast amounts of information requires the INS to develop methods for storing data, in both the short and long term and garnering information and knowledge eeded to support clinical practice, research and education. A second challenge facing the INS is the cost of delivering health care. Health care costs are a burden to society as a whole and likely to increase along with the number of uninsured individuals (McCormick et al. , 2007). Of concern is a shortage of registered nurses projected to spread across the country between 2009 and 2030 (American Associat ion of College of Nursing [AACN], 2012). The INS serves as a liaison with nursing and IT in developing technology and providing educational programs necessary to support care delivery. The goal is to optimize the existing and projected nursing workforce and ensure continuing quality of care amid the anticipated nursing shortages. Role of Information Systems â€Å"Informational systems (IS) deal with the development, use and management of an organization’s information technology (IT) infrastructure† (McGonigle & Mastrian, 2012, p. 29). As an INS, Jayne acknowledges that nurses spend the majority of their time providing direct care to patients and hope that an EHR will increase this patient-interaction time and consequently the quality of care delivered. Conversely, providing care requires the documentation of clinical information as an inherent aspect of routine care and is essential from both professional and legal standpoints. Nurses, according to Jayne consider an IS to be efficient if the system reduces their documentation time, even if the time savings do not translate into better patient care. Developing and introducing a new aspect of an IS for clinical practice can be frustrating, according to Jayne who often sees healthcare professionals preferring to work in silos (operating in isolation from others), rather than collaborating with other professionals in related fields of practice. Information comprises a wide range of aspects including patient-specific data, research information and procedure information. IS offer tremendous opportunities to enhance clinical practice and appropriateness of care and to increase efficiency and effectiveness in healthcare organizations (Oroviogoicoechea, Elliott, & Watson, 2008). It is important to develop and refine functional ISs that meet the needs of today’s healthcare industry while evolving to handle future demands of the healthcare community. Role of Privacy Patients cite privacy, together with security, as their issues of greatest concern about electronic records. The ANA Code of Ethics for Nurses with Interpretive Statements mandates that nurses protect a patients right to privacy and confidentiality (American Nurses Association [ANA], 2010). The use of an electronic health record (EHR) makes it difficult for an unauthorized person to gain access. According to Jayne, the IT department serves as the gatekeeper for data security. Within the Memorial Health System a provider needs a login name and a password to access the Cerner EHS. Additionally, Cerner maintains an audit trail, required by the privacy rules of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), that documents who has accessed individual records, as well as what part of the record was viewed. Firewalls and antivirus software protect the organization from hackers and viruses, encryption of data exiting the health system is essential since under (HIPPA) if data is stolen but encrypted the organization is exempt from fines. Physical access to computers and software is a foundation of computer security. Placement of computer monitors, privacy screens and a 30-second time-out feature prevent inadvertent viewing of protected health information (PHI). Greatest Learning EHRs have a huge impact on nursing documentation. Although nurses are the largest group of end-users they have had minimal input in the design of EHRs. The INS works synergistically with nursing and IT to design and implement documentation software, which is integrated into the clinical workflow and functions optimally in clinical practice. If this collaboration does not occur, â€Å"the frustrations of nurses may lead to an ‘EHR–practice gap’ similar to the long-existing ‘theory–practice gap’, or nurses may alter their clinical practice to fit in with rigid systems, thereby losing the heart and soul of nursing as a profession† (Stevenson, Nilsson, Petersson, & Johansson, 2010, p. 70). To ensure that the essence and complexity of nursing are not lost, the INS must be aware of the clinical needs of the nurse and the benefits of the IS which best supports patient care.

Entire Course Essay

   The Power of Many Watch From the grassroots- Understanding community organizing. Consider the African proverb: â€Å"A single bracelet does not jingle.† Discuss the process of social change and the benefit of organizing together for change over individual efforts. Read about the approaches or paths that can be taken to effect progressive social change. Discuss two or three approaches that seem most relevant or practical to you. Support your comments with references and respond to a minimum of two classmates’ postings Social Change Model From Table 3.4 in your text, select two social change models and compare and contrast the similarities and differences between them. Identify their social change tactic, and give examples of representative groups, coalitions, organizations, or entities that exemplify them. Specify the components of successful progressive organizations.  Support your comments with references and respond to a minimum of two classmates’ postings. Reflection Paper Watch the following video, 21st Century Enlightenment and consider the video’s concluding statement,† Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful committed citizens can change the world. Indeed it is the only thing that ever has†. In a three to four page paper, Discuss your thoughts on the video and how it supports this statement. Include a discussion of the terms â€Å"social change,† â€Å"progressive organizing,† and â€Å"community organizing†.Support your comments with references and respond to a minimum of two classmates’ postings. Reflecting upon the video, discuss some ways in which individual citizens can respond to social problems.  Consider how becoming involved with social change aligns with your own values as you consider the following quote, â€Å"Activism is living out one’s values†.Support your comments with references and respond to a minimum of two classmates’ postings. In 250-300 words, discuss the ways in which individuals can be empowered, disempowered and how they can combat personal disempowerment. How does personal empowerment lead to collective empowerment? Describe how social change organizations empower their individual members.  Support your comments with references and respond to a minimum of two classmates’ postings.